Examining the nature, effectiveness and implications of shadow education in rural Kazakhstan: A participatory study of primary school students

This study investigates the nature, effectiveness and implications of fee-based private tutoring among primary school students (age 11–12) in rural Kazakhstan, an underexamined context in shadow education research. Grounded in Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory and the ‘new sociology of childhood’, the study employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating survey data (N = 662) with qualitative participatory methods, including group interviews and children's drawings (N = 60). Findings reveal that 43.5% of students received private tutoring, with group tutoring being the most common due to affordability. Unlike their urban counterparts, who primarily seek tutoring for high-stakes exam preparation, rural students used it to strengthen subject comprehension and improve school performance. Some students also identified social and psychological benefits, such as enhanced self-confidence and improved communication skills. They acted agentively by pinpointing its drawbacks, including reduced time for leisure and financial strain on families. These findings highlight the need for policymakers to strengthen rural educational resources and address systemic inequalities that hinder access to selective schools, particularly due to geographical and socioeconomic barriers. Future research should explore the long-term effects of private tutoring on students' academic and socioemotional development, with particular attention to its role in supporting disadvantaged students and those with special educational needs.